The Effects of Social Media on Self-Esteem

This paper will discuss the impact of social media on an individual’s self-esteem in different stages of development through a psychosocial lens. Psychosocial theory of human development focuses on the inner world of an individual who is trying to find a sense of self in society. “The process of growth results from the interaction of individuals’ drives, goals, and abilities, and the expectations and demands of the culture” (Newman & Newman, 2022, p. 372). Social media and technology in general have become a part of our global culture, an essential form of communication, and significantly influences how we view ourselves (Newman & Newman, 2022). Social media has developed into many different forms with people of all ages using it in some capacity. The effect that social media has on an individual’s self-esteem can vary based on the individual’s age, the content they view, and their socioeconomic status (Yadav & Reddy, 2023).

Research on Social Media and Mental Health

The increase of social media use has brought along with it a lot of research analyzing its impact on mental health. According to previous research, there is a connection between increased time spent online and decreased face-to-face interactions (Chen & Lee, 2013, as cited in Raymer, 2015). A study performed on undergraduate students to test the effect that Facebook interaction has on self-esteem showed that not only do females spend more time on Facebook and have more friends online than males, but they also have lower body image satisfaction (Raymer, 2015).

According to research conducted in 2023 (Yadav & Reddy), 100% of college students have access to the internet and they spend an average of 8-10 hours a day on their electronic devices. While many college students do not have class every day yet are still spending a significant amount of time on their electronic devices, the questions become how much time are students spending on social media exclusively and how does it impact them? While technological advances have brought many benefits to societies, it can negatively impact mental health and self-esteem. Cyber-bullying, social comparison, and addiction to social media are a few of the negative impacts observed in young people using technology and more specifically, social media (Yadav & Reddy, 2023).

Beyond spending time online for homework, adolescents spend an average of 9 hours a day on social media sites (Flowers, 2021). The frequency in which adolescents are using social media is associated with negative psychological well-being, showing a link between excessive usage and anxiety and depression (Booth et al., 2020, as cited inFlowers, 2021). Users of social media who engage in more scrolling than posting are more likely to experience the negative effects of social media, such as social comparisons, which can result in lower body image and self-esteem. Social comparison via social media usage is shown to make individuals unhappy; in addition, individuals using social media for more than 2 hours a day are more likely to report mental health problems (Flowers, 2021).

Biopsychosocial Factors Impacted by Social Media

Biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors play a part in the use and abuse of social media. Age is the most prominent biological factor when considering social media use. Younger people are more likely to engage in social media use, which can lead to addiction and/or self-esteem problems (Dailey et al., 2020). Sex is another biological factor that impacts social media use and demonstrates differences across genders. Females spend more time maintaining social media profiles and are more concerned about appearances. Body dissatisfaction among women has increased and recent studies indicate a positive correlation between time spent online and body image avoidance. (Raymer, 2015). Research focusing on men with eating disorders is limited, however, there has been recent attention looking at eating and body dysfunction in males, including an exaggerated focus on bodybuilding and muscle mass, both of which are promoted on social media (Boerner et al., 2004).

Social comparison is the biggest issue in social media use in terms of social factors. Naturally, as people scroll through social media, they compare themselves to what they see online, which can be damaging to self-esteem. Social comparison theory developed by Leon Festinger (1954) suggests that people feel a need to evaluate their worth through comparison with others. Individuals obtain a sense of their self-worth from comparing themselves to those they see online (Dailey et al., 2020). This constant comparison to others on social media can lead to feelings of inadequacy, anxiety, and depression (Yadav & Reddy, 2023). Additionally, body dissatisfaction is on the rise and may be attributable to the thin ideal presented across media platforms, including social media. Studies show a correlation between more exposure to mass media and increased levels of body dissatisfaction and eating disorders (Levine & Murnen, 2009, as cited in Raymer, 2015).

The focus of this article is to analyze the psychological factor of self-esteem. People with low self-esteem often use social media to enhance their self-image and when they feel disliked they tend to turn to their social media friends to feel better about themselves (Steinfield et al., 2008, as cited in Dailey et al., 2020). While the content people look through on social media can damage an individual’s self-esteem, another prevalent factor with social media use is the presence of cyberbullying. Similar to the definition of bullying, cyberbullying is an aggressive act or behavior using an electronic device by a group or individual (Slonje et al., 2012). Cyberbullying can be threats of physical violence, death, sexual acts, or, the most common, harassment. It is easy to hide behind the anonymity of the internet and bully people without ever having to speak directly to them, which increases the convenience and the rate at which cyberbullying occurs (Yadav & Reddy, 2023).

Social media has impacted American culture and how we perceive ourselves as individuals. Social media has shaped our relationships and how they are formed, our education, and how people spend their time (Tang & Chan, 2020). This heavily impacts behavior and potential beliefs about ourselves and others. Most individuals, and especially young people, receive news from social media sources rather than news outlets on television or the newspaper. While social media has had and continues to have a negative impact on society and culture, it has also enabled people to connect with each other regardless of geographic location and allows people to remain connected throughout the day (Tang & Chan, 2020).

Psychosocial Theory

Psychosocial theory aims to explain changes in self-understanding, social relationships, and an individual’s relationship with society (Newman & Newman, 2022). Social media has become an integral part of social relationships for a majority of the population and can serve as an outlet for expressing oneself, especially for young individuals. Social media impacts people in different ways and is influenced by their current stage of development. Erik Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development outline different tensions that are faced by individuals throughout their lives. At each stage or tension, individuals are faced with challenges that can be exacerbated by the effects of social media use. A developmental stage is defined as “a period of life characterized by a specific underlying organization. At every stage, some characteristics differentiate it from the preceding and succeeding stages” (Newman & Newman, 2022, p. 375). The stages of development within psychosocial theory refer to changes in self-concept and a sense of self in society (Newman & Newman, 2022).

• Tension 1 – Trust vs. Mistrust. This stage begins in infancy. This psychological task is to develop a sense of trust regarding their basic needs being met by their caregiver (Syed & McLean, 2017). While this stage may not pertain directly to social media, it can be present in different life stages and may impact self-esteem and feelings of support in later stages.
• Tension 2 – Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt. This stage begins in toddlerhood and is characterized by beginning to develop as an individual and establish a sense of autonomy. An example of this is toilet training as it is a time where children exercise what little control they have. Erikson believed that toilet training was the beginning of understanding the process of holding on and letting go (Syed & McLean, 2017). This tension is relevant to the concept of social media as individuals control most of the content they view on social media and that content could influence their self-image and self-esteem.
• Tension 3 – Initiative vs. Guilt. This stage typically begins in early childhood. This is where autonomy is taken further and children engage in their environment on their own terms (Syed & McLean, 2017). This is often seen in the form of independent play where guilt can emerge as they are not engaging in a task tied to their caregiver. Foundations for self-concept and the emergence of self-esteem begin in early childhood. At this stage of development, self-concept and self-esteem are not yet impacted by social media but are more influenced by early peer relations and parenting (Berk, 2013).
• Tension 4 – Industry vs. Inferiority. This stage begins in middle childhood. As individuals reach the fourth and fifth stages of development they face new challenges, like the pressure to fit in. It is at the fourth stage where expectations are set in their home and at school and where children receive praise for their accomplishments. Beginning at about age six, children begin to seek approval from their peers and teachers and starting at about age 12, they begin puberty; These new social demands can result in the pressure to fit in. Through social interaction at this stage, children begin to develop a sense of accomplishment and need to cope with new social and academic demands. Success leads to a sense of competence, while failure results in feelings of inferiority (Orenstein & Lewis, 2022).
• Tension 5 – Identity vs. Identity-Confusion. This stage begins in adolescence and continues into emerging adulthood. At this stage, individuals look at their previous experiences, societal expectations, and their aspirations in discovering who they are and who they want to be (Orenstein & Lewis, 2022). Social pressures at this stage can influence and shape an individual’s values. Adolescence and emerging adulthood is where self-esteem can decrease, increase, and/or stabilize. Individuals at this stage of development want to fit in and relate to their peers. They also tend to move away from their parents/caregivers to gain more independence (Langlois, 2011). Social media impacts this stage of development because it can damage a person’s self-concept and self-esteem as many adolescents are first introduced to social media at this time. Social media is extremely common among adolescents and young adults. Up to 95% of adolescents ages 13–17 report using a social media platform with more than a third using social media almost constantly (Office of the Surgeon General, 2023). Although social media has provided a way to remain in contact with others, it can have adverse impacts on an individual’s sense of self and self-esteem. Specific risks include exposure to inappropriate content for their age (e.g., online pornography), peer-to-peer abusive behavior in the form of sexually provocative or antagonistic comments, privacy violations, and the undue influence of third parties (e.g., advertisements; O’Keefe & Clarke-Pearson, 2011, as cited in O’Reilly et al., 2018).
• Tension 6 – Intimacy vs. Isolation. At this time, developing intimate relationships, both platonic and romantic, becomes more important and is about sharing oneself with another individual. If an individual does not have a strong sense of their identity and attempts to engage in a relationship, the danger becomes that the individual will define themselves within the terms of that relationship. This can have detrimental effects as they have a limited sense of their individual identity (Syed & McLean, 2017). Social media has expanded to include online dating apps and contributes to individuals building an online image of themselves. Not being able to connect online or in-person with another individual can be isolating and result in self-esteem and self-worth issues.
• Tension 7 – Generativity vs. Stagnation. During this time individuals consider which parts of themselves they want to pass on to future generations and what they want to leave behind (Syed & McLean, 2017). Generativity includes reproduction and engaging in activities that could benefit future generations such as through teaching and modeling. Social media provides a way to leave an electronic footprint of who we were and what we engaged in.
• Tension 8 – Integrity vs. Despair. This stage is typically associated with old age. This is where individuals reflect on their life, contemplate if they lived life in the best way they could or if there are regrets, and considering whether they could have made better or different choices (Syed & McLean, 2017). Given how social media can impact self-esteem and self-worth, it can impact the way an individual acts and presents themselves. This tension could see an individual reflecting back on the way it changed them, positively or negatively.

Implications for Psychotherapy

Considering the extensive research in this area, it is important to use and apply what is known about social media’s impacts on self-esteem when conducting psychotherapy. Therapists should familiarize themselves with social comparison theory and the stages of development at which individuals are most vulnerable to the negative impacts that social media can have. It is important to remember that Erikson’s first eight stages of psychosocial development, while they tend to emerge at a certain age, are present at all points throughout development. Additionally, there are individual differences in the length and intensity of the tensions with cultural differences in the way or time they may present (Syed & McLean, 2017). No matter the age of the person walking into a psychotherapy session, it is important to consider the impact, past or present, that social media may have on their self-image and self-esteem.

Berk (2013) explains that perceived physical appearance has a stronger correlation with overall self-worth than any other factor of self-esteem during childhood and adolescence. Unfortunately, the emphasis put on appearance by social media, parents, peers, and society has damaging effects on young peoples’ view of themselves. It is important for therapists to be familiar with the dangers to self-esteem at this critical age because the damage can impact their self-concept and self-esteem into and throughout their adulthood as well. As a therapist, it is important to be aware of the social pressures experienced at this age. Building rapport and normalizing their struggles will likely foster a better client-therapist relationship and allow the client to remain open and honest throughout the therapy experience.

Social media has become a part of everyday life for many people and every person uses it in their own way. Because of this, every person has a different experience with social media, however, it is very common for it to have a negative impact at some point. Self-esteem begins developing at a young age and it is important that parents, peers, and therapists do what they can to foster positive self-esteem and self-concept from early on.